COGNITION: THOUGHT
Concept Formation
•
Concepts
:
•
Concept Formation
:
•
Classification
:
•
“fuzzy concepts”
Concept Formation and Stereotyping
•
Our natural tendency to form concepts and categorize leads to stereotyping
•
Only solution is to educate
Problem So
lving
•
Problem solving
–
Confronting and resolving situations that require insight or determination of some
unknown elements
How do we solve new Problems?
•
Learning Theory
•
Gestalt Theory
•
Information
-
Processing Theory
Approaches to Problem Solving
•
Algori
thm
–
Strategy involving applying a set of rules until the problem is solved.
–
Guarantees a correct solution.
–
Impractical due to lack of rules in most situations and time demands.
•
•
Heuristic
–
Strategy that involves the use of flexible guidelines (rules of
thumb)
–
Does not guarantee a correct solution
–
Efficient
Barriers to Problem Solving
•
Functional Fixedness
•
Mental Set
Creative Problem Solving
•
Creativity
:
–
generating ideas that are original, novel, and appropriate.
–
Original responses
:
–
Novel respo
nses
–
Appropriate responses
Ways of Thinking
Convergent Thinking
•
Example:
Divergent thinking
•
Example:
Reasoning & Decision Making
REASONING
•
Reasoning
=
–
purposeful process
–
Allows us to:
-
Formal vs. informal
REASONING
Formal
Informal
LOGIC
Logic
:
Tools
•
Deductive Reasoning
•
Inductive Reasoning
DECISION MAKING
•
Decision making
:
•
Trivial or complex
Uncertainty: Estimating Probabilities
•
Decisions can be based on
:
(a) formal logic
(b) hypothesis, testing
(c) an educated guess
Educated
Guess
:
Educated Guess
Problems with Estimating Probabilities
•
Because of their mood or lack of attention, people may act irrationally, ignore key
data, and make bad decisions
Barriers to Good Decision Making
Gambler’s Fallacy:
The belief that an e
vent is more likely to occur if it has not recently occurred
Belief in small numbers
Decision based on a small number of observations
Availability heuristic
Judging the probability of an event based on how easy it is to think of examples of it
Ove
rconfidence
Being so committed to one’s own ideas that one is often more confident than correct
Confirmation bias
People cling to beliefs despite contradictory evidence
Fallacy of Composition:
Belief that what is true of the parts is also true of
the whole
ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENCE
Artificial Intelligence
-
definition
•
Artificial intelligence
–
a field that draws on concepts from both cognitive
psychology and computer science to develop artificial systems that display some
aspects of human
-
like int
elligence
Limitations of AI
•
Well
-
defined and ill
-
defined problems
•
Lack of common sense
•
Lack of creativity
Neural Networks
•
Various bits of information are stored in different parts of the brain
•
A
convergence zone
Neural Networks:
Hierarchical Netw
ork Model
•
Assumes a hierarchy in which a particular word is stored under the higher order
category that subsumes it, which in turn is stored under a yet higher category
•
EXAMPLE:
Neural Networks:
Parallel distributed processing
•
parallel distributed proc
essing
(PDP)
•
PDP involves many operations taking place at the same time in various parts of the
brain
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