pptx

Meta
-
Cognition, Motivation,

and Affect

PSY504

Spring term, 2011

February 7, 2011

Andy Montalvo

Planning

1.
Disambiguation

2.
Theories

3.
Research

Important Terms

•
Plan and Planning

–
Different levels are referred to.

•
Study Plan

•
Problem level plan

–
Are there different parts to this?

•
Strategy

–
In education, it seems to be often spoken at a different level
than most people do

–
Underlining is spoken of as a strategy. This is a strategy?

•
Goals

–
There are goals,
subgoals

–
Goals are really its own subject, but we will touch on them here


Planning

•
To plan

•
Can anyone suggest a definition for planning?

•
Any suggestions for how to make this
definition better?

Plan/Planning Dictionary Definitions

•
Oxford: (a plan) an intention or decision about
what one is going to do

•
Cambridge: the act of deciding how to do
something

•
American Heritage: a scheme or method of
acting, doing, proceeding, making, etc.,
developed in advance

•
WordNet
: an act of formulating a program for
a definite course of action


Plan/Planning other definitions

•
Winne
,
Hadwin
: creation of sub
-
goals
(implicit)

•
Azevedo
, Guthrie, Seibert: A plan involves
coordinating the selection of operators. Its
execution involves making behavior
conditional on the state of the problem and a
hierarchy of goals and sub
-
goals


Plan/Planning other definitions

•
Muis

(2007):

–
Planning includes selecting the types of learning
and meta
-
cognitive
strategies an individual may
use to carry out the task

–
A plan is a course of action an individual decides
to implement prior to solving a problem


Plan/Planning other definitions

•
Schraw

(2006):

–

Planning involves the selection of appropriate
strategies and the allocation of resources

–
Planning includes goal setting, activating relevant
background knowledge, and budgeting time


Strategy

•
How is a strategy different?

Strategy
-

Definitions

•
Dictionary

–
American Heritage: A plan of action resulting from
strategy

or intended to accomplish a specific goal

–
Merriam Webster:

•
a

:

a careful plan or method
:

a clever stratagem

•
b

:

the art of devising or employing plans or stratagems
toward a goal

–
MacMillan: a plan or method for achieving
something, especially over a long period of time


Strategy

•
Synonyms by American Heritage

–
plan, blueprint, design, project, scheme, strategy


These nouns denote a method or program in
accordance with which something is to be done or
accomplished:
has no vacation plans; a blueprint
for reorganizing the company; social conventions
of human design; an urban
-
renewal project; a new
scheme for conservation; a strategy for survival.


Strategy

•
Any thoughts?

Attempts to Disambiguate

•
From Center for Management and
Organization Effectiveness

–
A plan is an arrangement, a pattern, a program, or
a scheme for a definite purpose. A plan is very
concrete in nature and doesn’t allow for deviation.

–
A strategy, on the other hand, is a blueprint,
layout, design, or idea used to accomplish a
specific goal. A strategy is very flexible and open
for adaptation and change when needed.

Attempts to Disambiguate

•
Answers.com

–
A plan is basically "what to do" while a strategy is
"how to do it“

•
Peggy Schoen (IMF)
–

how to downsize

–
Strategy :Doing the right thing

–
Plan: Doing things right

•
Dignath

(
Schraw
)

–

Planning involves the selection of appropriate
strategies and the allocation of resources

Goals

•
How do goals fit into this?

Goals
-

Definitions

•
Merriam Webster: the end toward which
effort is directed

•
WordNet
: the state of affairs that a plan is
intended to achieve and that (when achieved)
terminates behavior intended to achieve it

•
American Heritage: The purpose toward which
an endeavor is directed; an objective

Goals
-

Definitions

•
Winne
,
Hadwin
: A set of standards by which a
task might be judged

•
Azevedo
, Guthrie, Seibert: Consist either of
operations that are possible, postponed, or
intended, or of states that are expected to be
obtained. Goals can be identified because
they have no reference to already existing
states.

Questions? Comments?

How I will use the terms

•
Goal
–

an objective, something you wish to
achieve (not a wish), an end to which
effort

is
directed

•
Strategy
–

an approach used to achieve a goal
that includes plans, plan monitoring (not the
action, but the intent), and breaking goals into
sub
-
goals

•
Plan
–

list of procedures or tasks to perform to
achieve a goal

Theories

•
As far as I can tell there is only one theory. It’s
the stake in the ground

•
It’s
not just
for planning, so I’ve attempted to
extract the planning portion.


COPES model

Winne
,
Hadwin

•

Conditions

•

Operations

•

Products

•

Evaluations

•

Standards

Theory: Models

•
Winne
,
Hadwin

Task Definition

Goal setting and
Planning

Enacting study
strategies and Tactics

Meta cognitively
adapting

Theory: Models

•
Winne
,
Hadwin

–
More complicated than shown, but this is simplified to
focus on planning

–
For planning and sub
-
goals, it may be better to
defined sub
-
goals for students

–
(Morgan, 1985, cited)

•
Students not good at setting sub
--
goals

•
But students with sub
-
goals faired better

•
3 types of goals: proximal goals, 1 distal goal, 1 time goal

–
(
Schrunk
, 1996, cited) Goals externally set are better if
learning oriented rather outcome

•
Notice that planning is seen as goal setting

Theory: Models

•
Andy

Task

Goal

Task evaluation

Plan

Strategy

Sub
-
goals

Evaluate goal
in context

conversion

Enact

Evaluate

Action

Evaluate
Plan

Good

Bad

Bad, branch

Bad

Planning

Looking at Research

•
Research that measures

•
Research on instruction

•
Research on computer tutoring

•
Meta
-
analysis

•
AI

•
Other research

Research: Measuring

•
Azevedo
, Guthrie, Seibert (2004)

–
Students studying circulatory system

–
Used think
-
alouds

to record different self
-
regulated learning

–
Setting “learning goals” did not help low
-
jumpers,
but seemed to help high
-
jumpers

–
High
-
jumpers were better at

•
Planning

•
Creating sub
-
goals

•
Not recycling goals

Research: Direct Instruction

•
Azevedo
,
Cromley

(2004)

–
Students (experimental group) were taught what self
-
regulated learning was

–
Roger
Azevedo

actually sat with students and
explained self
-
regulation by describing it and showing
diagrams

–
These students amazingly did better than the control
group in learning, as measured by a post
-
test, on the
circulatory system.

–
Think
-
alounds

were used to measure meta
-
cog as
before

Research: Meta
-
analysis

•
Charlotte
Dignath
,
Buttner

[
Langfeldt
] (2008)

–
Primary school and secondary

–
Since these are meta
-
analyses, they look across
papers and therefore don’t address specific methods.

–
Student training of planning plus either monitoring or
evaluation strategies. Other combinations not as
good.

–
Teaching the planning and strategies was not enough,
students needed feedback on strategy use (related to
motivation)

–
Researcher interventions were better than teacher
interventions


Research: Tutoring

•
Corbett (1996)

–
Used ACT
-
R for planning scaffolding in Lisp tutor

–
Uses knowledge tracing

–
Basically adds scaffolds for getting students to
create sub
-
goals

–
Showed significant learning gains.

Research: AI

•
Mooney (1990)

–
How is planning learned? Use AI system called
GENESIS

–
GENESIS is a natural language program that reads
texts and attempts to figure out people plans and
intentions.

–
It extracts goals and plans (plan schemata) from text
and stores them

–
It can then use these to help it figure out other plans

–
It tests plans schemas to make sure they fit actions

–
Attempts to draw parallel to human reasoning

Somewhat connected research

•
The following set of research was interesting
and shed some light on planning, but seemed
less important to our discussion

Research: Tutoring

•
Rus
,
Lintean
,
Azevedo

(2010)

–
Used
MetaTutor

to scaffold sub
-
goals in
circulatory system tutor

–
Could tell if goals too general or specific

–
I’m not sure if there were any learning gains

Research: Tutoring

•
Manlove
: Process coordinator in PC+

–
Mostly better results, but it seemed that using the
tool sometimes took time away from other activities
like model building

•
White,
Federicksen
:
ThinkerTools

–
Anybody know about this?

–
Paper I had was 118 pages

•
Jackson, et al (1996):
ModelIt

–
Any one?

•
William, et al (1996): ASK Jasper

–
Any one?

Research: Model
-
Tracing

•
Koedinger, Anderson (1990)

–
Experts and novices create plans differently

–
Like in problem solving experts skip steps

Research: Hidden as something else

•
Sandoval,
Reiser

-

ExplanationConstructor

–
Part of Explanation driven inquiry

–
Questions need to be answered and answers are
to be explained.

–
Student creates hierarchy of questions that need
to be explained to get to back to the main
question.

–
Basically, this formulates a plan for how to answer
the question

Research: Hidden as something else

•
Bell, Davis

–
KIE (Knowledge Integration Environment

–
Use the pedagogical agent Mildred (a cow) to
provide “Thinking Ahead” prompts

Questions? Comments?

The End

Papers

1.
Azevedo
, R., &
Cromley
, J. G. (2004). Does training on self
-
regulated learning facilitate students'
learning with hypermedia?
Journal of Educational Psychology, 96
(3), 523
-
535

2.
Azevedo
, R.
Cromley
, J.G., Winters, F.I.,
Xu
, L., &
Iny
, D. (2003, July). Is strategy instruction
effective in facilitating students' ability to regulate their learning with hypermedia? In U. Hoppe,
F.
Verdejo
, & J. Kay (Eds.), Artificial Intelligence in Education: Shaping the future of learning
through intelligent technologies (pp. 193
-
200). Amsterdam: IOS Press.

3.
Azevedo
, R., Guthrie, J.T., Siebert, D. (2004) The Role of Self
-
Regulated Learning in Fostering
Students' Conceptual Understanding of Complex Systems with Hypermedia.
Journal of
Educational Computing Research
, 30 (1&2), 87
-
111.

4.
Corbett, Albert (2000)j Instructional Interventions in Computer
-
Based Tutoring: Differential
Impact on Learning Time and Accuracy; In Proc. of CHI'2000, The Hague; 97
--
104

5.
Dignath
, Charlotte and
Büttner
, Gerhard (2008) . Components of fostering self
-
regulated learning
among students. A meta
-
analysis on intervention studies at primary and secondary school level.
Metacognition

and Learning;
3 (3) 231
-
264

6.
Dignath
, Charlotte;
Buettner
, Gerhard;
Langfeldt
, Hans
-
Peter, How can primary school students
learn self
-
regulated learning strategies most effectively?: A meta
-
analysis on self
-
regulation
training
programmes
, Educational Research Review, Volume 3, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 101
-
12

Papers

7.
Koedinger, K. R. and Anderson, J. R. (1990), Abstract Planning and Perceptual Chunks: Elements of
Expertise in Geometry. Cognitive Science, 14:

511
–
550

8.
Manlove
, Sarah;
Lazonder
,
Ard
; de Jong, Ton (2007);
Software scaffolds to promote regulation
during scientific inquiry learning.
Metacognition

and Learning;

2(2) 141
-
155

9.
Mooney, Raymond J., Learning plan schemata from observation: Explanation
-
based learning for
plan recognition, Cognitive Science, Volume 14, Issue 4, October
-
December 1990, Pages 483
-
509

10.
Muis
, Krista R. and Franco, Gina M. (2010) Epistemic profiles and
metacognition
: support for the
consistency hypothesis.
Metacognition

and Learning
; 5 (1) , 27
-
45

11.
Rus
, V.,
Lintean
, M., &
Azevedo
, R., (2010). Computational Aspects of The Intelligent Tutoring
System
MetaTutor
. Proceedings of the
23st International Florida Artificial Intelligence Research
Society Conference
. Daytona Beach, FL.

12.
Schraw
, Gregory (2007) The use of computer
-
based environments for understanding and
improving self
-
regulation.
Metacognition

Learning (2007) 2:169
–
176

13.
Winne
, P.,
Hadwin
, P. (1998) Studying as Self
-
Regulated Learning. In Hacker, D.J.,
Dunlosky
, J.,
Graesser
, A.C.
Metacognition

in Educational Theory and Practice
, 277
-
304.