An Introduction
to
Linguistics
《
语言学概论
》
by Hu Yining
About the course
Linguistics
is
a
university
course
for
English
majors
in
their
3
rd
or
4
th
year
and
it
involves
many
fields
of
research
(e
.
g
.
psychology,
sociology,
philosophy),
so
it’s
not
surprising
if
you
find
it
difficult
at
the
beginning
.
It’s
a
must
for
language
students
to
learn
something
about
linguistics
and
very
important
for
those
who
want
to
do
further
study
after
graduation
.
The
course
will
be
given
mainly
in
English,
but
in
Chinese
when
necessary
.
A few requests:
Attend
the
course
regularly
since
it’s
a
compulsory
course
.
Not
an
optional
one
.
No
absence
from
class
without
reasonable
reasons
.
Take
notes,
remember
the
terminal
words
and
facts,
and
do
the
revision
.
Continuous
assessment
will
be
given
for
the
course,
so
fulfill
all
the
assignments
satisfactorily
including
the
“Further
Reading”
part
at
the
back
of
the
textbook
(P
.
275
-
298
)
.
A list of reference books:
1
.
《
语言学教程
》
(
英语版
),
胡壮麟
,
北京大学出版社
。
2
.
《
语言学概论
》
王德春
，
上海外语教育出版社
。
3
.
《
现代英语语言学概论
（
英语版
）
戴炜栋
,
上海外语教育
出版社
。
4
.
《
现代语言学
》
何兆熊
梅德明
，
外语教学与研究出版社
5
.
《
简明英语语言学教程
》
（
英语版
）
戴炜栋等
，
上海外
语教育出版社
6
.
《
语言学和语言的应用
》
王宗炎
，
上海外语教育出版社
7
.
《
语言学
》
H
.
G
.
Widdowson
，
上海外语教育出版社
8
.
《
语言学入门
》
（
英语版
）
Stuart
C
.
Poole
外语教学与
研究出版社
Chapter 1
Language and Linguistics
The Nature of Language
(P.1~P.13)
What
is
language?
As
human
beings,
we
can
feel
the
existence
of
language
everywhere
.
However,
very
few
of
us
know
the
true
nature
of
language
.
There
is
remarkable
uncertainty
as
how
language
really
functions
in
human
communication
.
Great
efforts
have
been
made
to
define
the
nature
of
language
from
different
points
of
view
(See
the
4
ones
on
P
.
1
)
.
Some additional ones:
Language
is
the
most
frequently
used
and
most
highly
developed
form
of
human
communication
we
possess
.
──
David
Crystal
语言是音义结合的词汇和语法的体系
，
是人
类最重要的工具
，
是人类思维的工具
，
也是
社会上传递信息的工具
。
──
王德春
Unfortunately,
a
perfect
and
satisfactory
definition
has
yet
to
come
.
Despite
the
differences
in
their
views,
many
linguists
have
agreed
to
accept
the
view
that
“Language
is,
in
essence,
a
system
of
symbols
designed
for
the
purpose
of
human
communication
.
”
（
就其本质而言
，
语言是人类以交际为目的而设计
的一套符号系统
）
.
They
have
come
to
a
general
agreement
about
the
following
important
features
that
are
typical
of
the
nature
of
human
languages
.
The
defining
properties
of
human
language
(
语言的
特性
)
Design
features
（
识别特征
）
:
The
possession
of
language
most
clearly
distinguishes
man
from
other
animals
.
Human
language
has
five
features
:
1
.
Creativity
（
创造性
）
─
We
all
have
the
ability
to
construct
and
understand
an
indefinitely
large
number
of
sentences
in
our
native
languages
.
（
在母语所规定的限制范围内
，
人可以在构词
、
造句
、
理
解句子方面有着无限的创造力
。
）
2
.
Arbitrariness
（
任意性
）
──
Except
the
very
few
onomatopoeic
words
(e
.
g
.
cuckoo,
mew,
bang,
ding
-
dong,
ping
-
pang),
there
is
no
necessary
relationship
between
the
sign/sound
and
what
the
sign/sound
means
(e
.
g
.
a
dog,
un
chien
,
狗
)
（
除了极少数拟声词之外
，
语言中大部
分的词与其所表示的意思之间都没有内在
的
、
必然的联系
。
完全是一种任意的选定
.
)
3
.
Duality
of
structure
(or
double
articulation)
（
结构
的双重性
）
:
This
property
is
usually
claimed
to
be
unique
to
humans
.
Each
human
language
is
organized
into
two
basic
systems
:
a
system
of
sounds
and
a
system
of
meanings
Higher
level
─
Language
is
a
combination
of
meaningful
units
(such
as
morphemes,
words)
.
Lower
level
──
Language
is
a
sequence
of
segments
which
lack
any
meaning
in
themselves,
but
which
combine
to
form
units
of
meaning
(such
as
letters,
phonetic
symbols
.
)
(*
Why
is
duality
regarded
as
an
important
feature
of
human
language?
Because
:
i
.
A
far
greater
number
of
messages
can
be
sent
;
ii
.
No
animal
communication
possesses
it
.
)
4
.
Displacement
（
不受时空限制性
）
──
Human
language
can
cope
with
any
subject
what
ever,
and
it
does
not
matter
how
far
away
the
topic
is
in
time
and
space
.
（
语言可以用来表达任何时间
、
任
何地点的任何抽象或具体的人
、
事
、
物
）
.
5
.
Cultural
transmission
（
文化传递特性
/
从头学
的必要性
）
──
The
details
of
the
linguistic
system
must
be
learned
anew
from
the
beginning
by
each
speaker
.
Without
the
environment
of
language
and
communication,
language
can’t
be
acquired
.
（
语言非遗传所得
，
人人都得从头学
起
。
没有语言
环境
，
没有交流环境
，
语言是无法习得的
）
.
1
.
1
.
1
Language
Is
Systematic
(P
.
2
)
---
This
property
is
usually
claimed
to
be
unique
to
humans
.
Each
human
language
is
organized
into
two
basic
systems
:
a
system
of
sounds
and
a
system
of
meanings
.
This
is
called
the
duality
of
language
.
---
Human
language
operated
on
two
levels
of
structure
.
At
one
level,
elements
have
no
meaning
themselves
.
They
have
meaning
when
combined
to
form
units
at
another
level
.
---
In
the
meaning
system,
these
units
of
meaning
can
be
arranged
in
an
infinitive
number
of
ways
to
express
both
simple
and
complicated
ideas
.
A
language
offers
its
speaker
the
opportunity
to
talk
about
anything
.
The
number
of
words
in
a
language
is
relatively
finite
but
their
possible
combination
can
be
infinite
.
The
syntax
of
a
language
may
deal
with
the
ordering
of
words,
which
actually
is
the
rules
for
the
formation
of
sentences
and
parts
of
sentences
such
as
phrases
and
clauses
.
(Have
a
look
at
the
exercises
at
the
back
of
this
part
on
P
.
3
.
)
1
.
1
.
2
Language
Is
Symbolic
(P
.
3
-
5
)
People
use
signs
to
communicate,
which
means
that
language
involves
signs
.
The
way
in
which
people
communicate
through
signs
and
images,
or
the
study
of
it
is
referred
to
as
“semiology”
or
“semiotics”
.
Roland
Barthes
and
others
extend
semiology
to
include
complex
cultural
forms
of
communication
such
as
painting,
music,
films,
theatre,
dance,
clothing,
advertising,
architecture,
literature,
and
even
food
.
Traditionally,
signs
are
divided
into
natural
signs
and
conventional
signs
.
According
to
Traugott
&
Pratt,
signs
can
be
categorized
into
3
major
types
:
(
1
)
Icon
(
图像符号
)
---
When
an
object
and
its
sign
are
related
by
a
physical
resemblance,
we
say
the
sign
is
an
icon
(
如：路标
，
男女图案
，
刀叉图案
)
.
(
2
)
Index
（
指示符号
）
---
When
an
object
and
its
sign
are
associated
to
each
other
by
physical
proximity,
we
call
the
sign
an
index
（
如：各种天气预报标识
，
心被
剑射中的图案
）
.
(
3
)
Symbol
(
象征符号
)
---
When
a
sign
and
the
object
it
signifies
are
associated
by
social
convention,
the
sign
is
called
a
symbol
（
如：交通灯
，
结婚戒指
，
国旗
，
鸽
子
，
倒写的福字
，
条桌上的花瓶和镜子
，
五只蝙蝠
，
玫
瑰花等等
）
。
One has to learn symbolic signs as part of the
culture. Accordingly, language belongs to this
type of signs. Language is mainly symbolic.
Words
are
associated
with
objects,
actions,
and
ideas
by
social
convention
.
The
symbolic
nature
of
language
is
more
important
and
complicated
than
any
other
types
of
signs,
and
more
embracing
and
representative
of
all
the
features
of
all
signs
.
Without
the
symbolic
signs
of
language,
we
can
not
talk
about
anything
as
we
like
.
In
today’s
multimedia
world,
there
are
many
instances
of
meaning
being
expressed
by
different
types
of
signs
working
together
.
Typical
examples
can
be
found
in
commercial
advertisements
on
TV
(
电视广告：药
，
洗发水
，
保健品
)
。
(Have
a
look
at
the
exercises
at
the
back
of
this
part
on
P
.
5
.
)
1
.
1
.
3
Language
Is
Arbitrary
(P
.
6
-
7
)
The
forms
of
linguistic
signs
bear
no
natural
resemblance
to
their
meaning
.
The
link
between
them
is
a
matter
of
convention,
and
conventions
differ
radically
across
languages
.
Arbitrariness
does
not
imply
that
the
choice
of
the
signifier
is
left
entirely
to
the
speaker
.
The
individual
does
not
have
the
power
to
change
a
sign
in
any
way
once
it
has
become
established
in
the
linguistic
community
.
The
understanding
of
arbitrariness
is
not
easy
.
Words
are
arbitrary
in
form,
but
they
are
not
random
in
their
use
.
One
thing
we
should
note
that
although
the
link
between
form
and
meaning
is
arbitrary,
there
exists
certain
relationship
between
them
.
(Have
a
look
at
the
exercises
at
the
back
of
this
part
on
P
.
7
.
)
1.1.4 Language Is Primarily Vocal (P. 7)
The
relationship
between
writing
and
speaking
:
1
.
The
primary
medium
of
language
is
sound
.
No
matter
how
well
developed
are
their
writing
systems,
all
languages
use
sounds
.
2
.
Writing
is
based
on
speaking
.
Writing
systems
are
attempts
to
capture
sounds
and
meanings
on
paper
.
Writing
can
influence
speaking
Why
do
we
say
that
language
is
primarily
vocal?
Because
:
1
)
Children
learn
to
speak
before
they
learn
to
read
and
write
;
2
)
Children
automatically
learn
a
language
as
they
grow
up
.
There
is
normally
no
tutoring,
but
with
writing,
the
learning
process
is
different
.
The
development
of
reading
proficiency
depends
to
a
great
degree
upon
the
pedagogical
skills
or
teachers
.
3
)
The
spoken
form
came
earlier
than
the
written
in
human
history
.
The
written
form
of
any
language
is
always
much
more
recent
than
the
spoken
.
4
)
Writing
is
based
on
speech
.
Writing
system
represents
some
levels
of
the
spoken
language,
such
as
distinct
words,
syllables,
or
sounds
.
5
)
People
use
spoken
language
more
often
than
writing
.
People
use
the
spoken
form
more
frequently
than
writing
as
a
basic
form
of
verbal
communication
.
(Have
a
look
at
the
exercises
at
the
back
of
this
part
on
P
.
10
.
)
1
.
1
.
5
Language
Is
Human
Specific
(P
.
10
.
)
There
are
certain
characteristics
of
human
language
that
are
not
found
in
the
communication
system
of
any
other
species
.
Attempts
to
teach
animals
more
complicated
systems
have
ended
in
failure
.
Human
children
can
acquire
language
with
ease,
and
without
intensive
and
directed
instruction
.
Yet,
animals
lack
the
capacity
to
learn
.
They
do
not
have
the
mental
capacity
to
be
communicatively
creative
.
The
differences
between
human
language
and
animal
communication
:
Language
has
the
ability
to
refer
to
things
far
removed
in
time
and
space
.
Humans
have
the
ability
to
produce
and
understand
an
indefinite
number
of
novel
utterances
(creativity/openness/productivity)
.
No
animal
can
communicate
creatively
with
another
animal
.
Learning
is
much
more
important
as
a
factor
in
human
language
than
in
animal
communication
.
Human
languages
have
very
much
in
common,
but
they
differ
from
one
another
on
many
specific
points
Language
is
complex
in
its
structure
.
Human
language
structure
and
language
use
are
vastly
more
complex
than
any
known
animal
communication
system
.
Animal
communication
systems
are
closed,
whereas
human
languages
are
open
-
ended
.
People
can
talk
about
anything
they
can
observe
or
imagine
.
Humans
can
perform
acts
with
language
just
as
they
can
with
objects
of
different
kinds
.
(Have
a
look
at
the
exercises
at
the
back
of
this
part
on
P
.
12
.
)
1
.
1
.
6
.
Language
Is
Used
for
Communication
Language
is
used
for
communication
.
Language
is
the
result
of
our
communication
needs
.
Its
attractiveness
comes
from
its
social
utility
.
Human
beings
communicate
in
ways
different
from
those
used
by
any
species
.
Through
language
we
can
do
things
animals
can
not
do
.
It
is
by
the
use
of
language
that
we
can
transmit
our
social
heritage
from
one
generation
to
the
next
.
Two
-
way
communication
occurs
frequently
when
the
sending
and
receiving
functions
are
performed
with
equal
frequency
by
two
or
more
persons
.
With
the
growth
in
foreign
travel,
the
migration
of
people
to
other
countries,
and
expansion
of
international
trade,
there
has
been
an
increase
in
intercultural
communication
across
national
and
ethnic
borders
.
(Discuss
the
exercises
at
the
back
of
this
part
on
P
.
13
.
)
1
.
2
The
Functions
of
Language
(P
.
14
~
20
)
The
term
communication
can
be
used
to
cover
most
of
the
function
of
language
.
But
the
function
of
language
is
varied,
in
terms
of
using
the
language
to
chat,
to
think,
to
buy
and
sell,
to
read
and
write,
to
greet
people,
etc
.
Language
functions
in
our
society
as
a
principal
means
of
communication
.
It
also
functions
as
social
control
.
It
is
not
only
a
psychological
phenomenon,
but
also
a
social
fact
.
Language
is
not
a
self
-
contained
system,
but
entirely
dependent
on
the
society
in
which
it
is
used
.
We
must
study
meaning
with
reference
to
an
analysis
of
the
functions
of
language
in
any
given
culture
.
Malinowski
distinguishes
three
major
functions
of
language
:
the
pragmatic
（
语用的
，
务实的
）
function
:
language
as
a
form
of
action
;
the
magical
function
:
language
as
a
means
of
control
over
environment
;
the
phatic(
寒暄的
，
社交的
)
function
：
language
as
a
means
to
help
establish
and
maintain
social
relations
.
We
can
categorize
the
functions
of
language
into
general
functions
and
metafunctions
(
元功能
，
纯理功能
)
.
General
functions
refer
to
the
particular
individual
uses
of
language
while
metafunctions
refer
to
the
larger,
more
general
purposes
underlying
language
use
.
1
.
2
.
1
General
Functions
of
Language
Language
enables
humans
to
do
many
things,
thus
serving
different
functions
in
the
society
.
Finch
lists
the
following
7
general
functions
of
language
:
1
.
2
.
1
.
1
Physiological
Function
(
生理功能－发泄
、
释
放情绪
)
Language
can
help
get
rid
of
nervous
or
physical
energy
.
This
function
is
also
known
as
the
emotive
or
expressive
function
of
language
.
There
are
many
emotive
utterances
in
our
daily
life
which
serve
no
communicative
purpose
but
allow
us
to
release
inner
feelings
(e
.
g
.
Shoot!
快呀
！
踢呀
！
)
.
A
great
deal
of
what
we
say
when
angry
is
simply
to
relieve
our
physical
and
nervous
energy
caused
by
emotional
distress
(e
.
g
.
“bad
language”,
swear
words,
obscenities,
and
taboos)
.
1
.
2
.
1
.
2
Phatic
Function
(
寒暄功能
，
社交功能
)
•
Language
can
serve
the
function
of
creating
or
maintaining
social
relationship
between
speakers
.
•
We
often
use
language
simply
to
express
our
willingness
to
be
sociable
.
No
factual
content
is
involved
(Different
ways
of
greetings
in
different
countries)
.
They
are
just
conversation
-
fillers
.
In
this
sense,
language
can
act
as
a
form
of
social
bonding
that
links
people
together
.
Failure
to
observe
these
social
courtesies
can
cause
considerable
embarrassment
and
even
bad
feelings
.
Cultures
vary
greatly
in
the
topics
which
they
permit
as
phatic
communication
(e
.
g
.
Lovely
day,
isn’t
it?
吃过了吗
？
)
The
phatic
use
of
language
is
mainly
spoken
but
there
are
some
written
equivalents
(e
.
g
.
Dear
Sir/Madam,
Yours
faithfully)
.
1
.
2
.
1
.
3
Recording
Function
(
记录功能－不受
时空限制性
)
Language
allows
us
to
record
things
we
wish
to
remember
.
It
might
be
a
short
-
term
shopping
list
or
a
long
-
term
diary
or
history
of
some
kind
.
This
function
of
language
is
represented
by
all
kinds
of
record
-
keeping,
such
as
historical
records,
geographical
surveys,
business
accounts,
and
data
banks
.
Without
language,
it
would
be
impossible
for
us
to
trace
the
history
of
humans
and
modern
commercial
life
would
be
impossible
.
This
function
is
the
most
important
function
behind
the
development
of
language
from
being
an
oral
medium
to
becoming
a
written
one
.
1
.
2
.
1
.
4
Identifying
Function
(
识别功能－
－语言的任
意性
)
Language
also
allows
us
to
identify,
with
considerable
precise,
an
enormous
array
of
objects
and
events
.
Without
language,
it
would
be
very
difficult
to
make
sense
of
the
world
around
us
.
Because
we
know
the
names
of
things,
we
can
refer
to
them
quickly
and
accurately
in
good
order
.
Names
are
made
up
and
essentially
arbitrary
.
To
call
a
table
a
chair
would
not
change
the
reality
of
the
thing
.
Words
do
not
exist
in
isolation
but
are
part
of
the
social
network
.
1
.
2
.
1
.
5
Reasoning
Function
(
论证
、
推理功能
)
Much
of
our
thinking
is
done
with
words
or,
to
be
more
exact,
in
words
.
So,
language
is
commonly
regarded
as
a
tool
of
thoughts
.
When
we
have
ideas
forming
in
our
minds,
we
need
to
find
the
appropriate
words
to
express
these
ideas
.
Our
ideas
are
coded
in
language
.
Although
the
relationship
between
language
and
the
mind
is
complicated,
speaking
and
writing
are
forms
of
thoughts
.
This
is
why
most
people
feel
that
they
have
not
really
understood
something
until
they
have
been
able
to
express
it
in
language
.
(How
about
“
只能意会
，
不能言传
”
？
)
A
problem
is
that
the
meaning
of
many
words
are
not
stable
and
as
a
consequence
it
is
difficult
to
think
with
any
precision
.
Words
mean
different
things
to
different
people
and
may
have
different
connotations
（
e
.
g
.
Monday
morning,
十三
点
，
二百五
）
.
In
recent
years,
however,
a
number
of
studies
have
shown
that
not
everything
in
our
mental
life
depends
on
language
.
1
.
2
.
1
.
6
Communicating
Function
(
交际功能
)
As
we
have
seen
in
the
previous
section,
language
is
a
means
of
communicating
ideas
and
facts
.
In
human
society,
people
need
to
understand
and
be
understood,
to
have
their
feelings
and
ideas
recognized
and
acknowledged
.
We
use
language
to
express
ourselves
to
others
.
We
also
need
language
in
order
to
understand
what
others
are
communicating
to
us
.
We
use
language
for
requesting,
ordering,
promising,
asking
for
permission,
and
so
on
(e
.
g
.
All
the
Dialogue
2
.
parts
in
A
New
English
Course
—
functional
English)
.
All
human
achievements
are
closely
related
to
successful
acts
of
communication
.
Language
is
the
most
developed
and
most
subtle
way
to
perform
communication
acts,
and
it
is
the
natural
inheritance
of
humans
.
1
.
2
.
1
.
7
.
Pleasure
Function
(
愉悦功能
)
Language
allows
us
to
derive
pleasure
from
it
.
A
large
part
of
the
pleasure
we
derive
from
language
comes
from
the
successful
exploitation
of
linguistic
novelty
at
different
levels
of
the
language
.
Advertisers
(cross
-
talking)
exploit
this
capacity
just
as
much
as
poets
and
novelists
.
At
the
simplest
level
there
is
the
enjoyment
of
sound
itself
and
the
melody
of
certain
combination
of
sounds
(e
.
g
.
No
Sun,
no
fun!
沟通从
“
心
”
开始；
“
胃
！
你好吗
？
”
；斯达
舒
—
“
四大叔
”
)
.
Most
poetry
exploit
this
function
(onomatopoeia,
alliteration
头韵
,
and
assonance
谐音
)
.
Examples
Onomatopoeia
:
The
stream
is
murmuring
through
the
woods
.
Jane
started
giggling
.
The
door
crashed
open
.
Heavy
rain
drops
began
pitter
-
pattering
on
the
tent
.
I
eat
what
I
can,
I
can
what
I
can’t
.
Alliteration
:
Promise,
Problem,
and
Provision
.
Presentation,
Practice
and
Production
.
World
-
wide
web
.
Assonance
:
fair
and
square
;
near
and
dear
;
The
rain
in
Spain
stays
mainly
in
plains
.
At
the
syntactical
level,
we
can
gain
pleasure
from
rearrangement
by
inversion
or
ellipsis
of
normal
phrases
or
clauses
order
and
from
the
conversion
of
words
from
one
class
to
another
.
These
changes
play
against
our
normal
expectation
from
language
and
create
a
sense
of
novelty
.
Examples
Inversion
:
Up
goes
the
prices
of
daily
necessities,
and
down
come
the
living
conditions
of
people
.
Ellipsis
:
Got
troubles?
I
came,
I
saw,
I
conqured
.
At
the
level
of
meaning
,
most
creative
uses
of
language
provide
considerable
pleasure
through
the
generation
of
puns
（
双关
）
,
paradoxes
（
矛盾修辞法
,
反论
）
,
ambiguities
（
含糊其 辞
，
歧 义
）
,
and
metaphors
.
With
these
the
oddness
is
not
necessarily
syntactic
but
lies
in
the
capacity
of
the
language
to
generate
a
plurality
（
大量不同的事物
）
of
possible
meanings
.
Examples
Pun
:
No
sun,
no
fun!
Try
our
sweet
corn
and
you’ll
smile
from
ear
to
ear
.
---
“Fourth
floor!”
shouted
a
passenger
in
the
lift
.
---
“Hear
you
are,
son
.
”
---
“How
dare
you
call
me
‘son’
?
”
---
“Sir,
I
called,
or
whatever
.
I’ve
brought
you
up,
anyway
.
”
Paradox
:
More
haste,
less
speed
.
It’s
a
paradox
that
in
such
a
rich
country
there
can
be
so
much
poverty
.
甜蜜的痛苦，痛苦的甜蜜；
最恨我最爱的人，最爱我最恨的人；
痛，并快乐着。
好得一塌糊涂！
Ambiguity
:
头脑活络
，
手脚灵活
;
先开花
，
后结果
。
买一送一
。
Metaphor
:
The
sunshine
of
her
smile
wormed
everybody
present
.
It’s
been
a
hard
few
months,
but
we’re
finally
beginning
to
see
the
light
at
the
end
of
the
tunnel
.
军民鱼水情；
儿童是祖国的花朵；
老师是辛勤的园丁；
老师是蜡烛
This
is
not
an
exhaustive
list
and
we
may
well
have
thought
of
other
functions
.
It
is
important
to
bear
in
mind
that
a
specific
use
of
language
may
fulfill
more
than
one
function
.
The
more
functions
something
fulfills,
the
more
complex
it
usually
is
.
(Have
a
look
at
the
exercises
on
P
.
18
.
)
Look
at
the
following
examples
of
metaphor
.
Every pawn
(soldier) has its
uses, but without
the chess board,
it can only be a
pawn.
I may not be
a trump
card, but I’m
definitely a
good card.
I am this bowl of
tea (big
-
bowl tea).
Which looks plain
but has a long
lasting taste.
I am the pure bred
(the hidden talent);
are you the one to
discover me?
1
.
2
.
2
Metafunctions
of
Language
(
语言的元功能
/
纯理
功能
)
(P
.
18
~
20
)
A
metafunction
is
one
which
is
capable
of
describing
one
or
more
other
functions
.
People
do
different
things
with
language
.
They
intend
to
achieve
different
aims
and
different
purposes
by
talking,
writing,
listening
and
reading
.
Language
is
a
system
of
signs
developed
to
express
social
meanings
.
Function
can
be
regarded
as
the
use
of
language
and
be
interpreted
as
a
fundamental
property
of
language
.
According
to
Halliday,
language
has
to
have
an
ideational
function,
an
interpersonal
function,
and
a
textual
function
.
1
.
2
.
2
.
1
Ideational
Function
(
概念功能
)
We
are
using
language
as
a
symbolic
code
to
represent
the
world
around
us
.
The
ideational
function,
then,
is
the
content
of
language
and
allows
us
to
conceptualize
the
world
for
our
own
benefit
and
that
of
others
.
Through
this
function,
the
language
encodes
the
cultural
experience
and
the
speaker
encodes
his
or
her
own
individual
experience
of
the
things
of
the
world
and
his
or
her
own
consciousness
.
The
ideational
function
is
divided
into
experiential
function
and
logical
function
.
In
a
sense
we
bring
the
world
into
being
linguistically
.
1
.
2
.
2
.
2
Interpersonal
Function
(
人际功能
)
According
to
Halliday,
the
interpersonal
component
represents
the
speaker’s
meaning
potential
as
an
intruder
.
It
is
through
language
that
the
speaker
intrudes
himself
or
herself
into
the
context
of
situation
.
He
or
she
expresses
his
or
her
own
attitudes
and
judgments
and
seeks
to
influence
the
attitudes
and
behavior
of
others
.
The
interpersonal
function
expresses
the
role
relationships
associated
with
the
situation
.
We
gain
much
of
our
sense
of
identity,
of
who
and
what
we
are,
from
our
relationships
both
with
animate
and
inanimate
things,
and
language
is
an
essential
part
of
that
personalizing
process
.
1
.
2
.
2
.
3
Textual
Function
(
语篇功能
)
Language
has
the
function
which
enables
the
other
two
functions
to
operate,
namely,
the
function
which
represents
the
speaker’s
text
-
forming
potential
.
This
function
relates
our
abilities
to
construct
texts
out
of
our
utterances
and
writings
.
Halliday
calls
it
the
textual
function
.
We
can
see
it
as
using
language
to
bring
texts
into
being
.
This
function
expresses
the
relation
of
language
to
the
verbal
and
nonverbal
situational
environment
.
These
terms
are
interpreted
as
functional
components
of
the
semantics
system
.
They
are
present
in
every
use
of
language
in
every
social
context
.
A
text
is
a
product
of
all
three
.
The
three
metafunctions
of
language
are
closely
related
to
context
and
realized
in
the
lexico
-
grammar
of
language
.
They
are
interwoven
in
discourse
.
According
to
Halliday,
every
sentence
in
a
context
is
multifunctional
and
has
three
metafunctions
simultaneously
.
This
is
the
essential
nature
of
a
functional
theory
.
(A
quick
look
at
the
2
questions
on
P
.
20
.
)
Assignment
:
Collect
and
write
down
as
many
as
possible
the
following
:
1
.
The
3
kinds
of
signs
:
icon,
index,
symbol
.
2
.
The
pleasure
function
of
language
at
the
three
levels
:
sound,
syntax,
and
meaning
.
1
.
3
The
Origin
and
Classification
of
Language
Man’s
interest
in
his
own
origin
and
his
own
nature
has
resulted
in
many
theories
on
the
origin
of
language
.
A
study
of
the
history
of
languages
show
that
many
languages
develop
from
a
single
one
.
Many
scientists
today
believe
that
man
arose
in
many
different
places
of
the
world
.
If
this
is
the
case,
there
were
many
proto
-
languages
(
原始语言
),
from
which
the
modern
language
families
developed
.
1
.
3
.
1
The
Origin
of
Language
Biologists,
anthropologists
（
人类学家
）
,
psychologists,
neurologists
（
神经学家
）
,
and
linguists
have
done
a
wide
range
of
studies
in
the
origin
of
language
.
Some
have
looked
at
the
problem
of
whether
primitive
man
had
the
physiological
（
生理上的
）
capacity
to
speak
.
The
reports
show
that
the
human
vocal
tract
（
声道
）
evolved
from
a
non
-
human
primate
form
to
facilitate
efficient
communication
.
Some
hold
that
learning
to
use
tools
and
learning
language
are
interrelated
skills
.
With
the
development
of
the
human
society,
man
learned
to
use
tools
by
hand
and
tools
promoted
the
development
of
speech,
because
learning
involved
language
.
1.3.2 Language Families
The
role
of
intercultural
contact
is
a
real
problem
in
studying
many
language
families
.
Both
types
of
classification
ignore
the
relevance
of
cultural
links
between
languages
.
With
the
passage
of
time
and
the
development
of
intercultural
communication,
languages
influence
each
other
by
contact
and
may
borrow
words
from
each
other
.
Sometimes
languages
that
have
no
historical
relationship
can
converge
so
that
they
seem
to
be
members
of
the
same
family
.
Thus,
it
is
often
very
difficult
to
decide
whether
two
languages
look
similar
because
they
share
a
common
origin,
or
because
they
have
borrowed
from
each
other
.
However,
many
achievements
have
been
made
in
the
classification
of
languages
.
According
to
Crystal
(
1987
),
there
are
at
least
29
languages
families
in
the
world
.
1
.
4
What
is
Linguistics?
Linguistics
is
the
science
of
language
and
is
usually
defined
as
the
systematic
study
of
language
or,
as
a
discipline
that
describes
all
aspects
of
language
and
formulate
theories
as
to
how
language
works
.
Linguistics
is
the
study
of
language
as
a
system
of
human
communication
.
Linguistics
is
principally
concerned
with
the
universals
of
the
human
mind
.
For
many
scholars,
the
main
purpose
of
linguistics
is
to
develop
a
general
theory
of
language
and
theories
on
aspects
of
language
.
The
primary
goal
of
linguistics
is
to
explain
not
only
how
meanings
are
construed
but
also
how
they
maintain
a
systematic
relation
to
the
already
linguistically
construed
socially
defined
world
.
1
.
4
.
1
.
1
Tasks
of
Linguistics
As
a
science,
linguistics
demands
a
rational
and
scientific
outlook
on
language
.
It
takes
an
objective
view
of
language
and
all
linguistic
phenomena
.
Linguists
study
language
and
reflect
on
it
in
a
detached
and
unbiased
way
.
They
make
no
value
judgments
about
languages
.
Linguistics
formulates
explanations
of
the
phenomena
of
language,
and
also
observes
and
analyses
data
found
in
natural
language
according
to
the
general
principles
of
empirical
（
经验式的
）
research
procedures
.
Linguistics
will
find
out
the
common
features
of
all
languages,
the
range
of
variations
among
languages,
the
difference
of
human
languages
from
animal
communication
.
Linguistics
will
also
find
out
the
evolution
of
language,
the
analysis
of
unwritten
languages,
the
change
of
languages,
the
relation
of
language
to
the
society
.
Linguistics
starts
from
such
simple
concepts
such
as
speech
sound,
word,
sentence,
meaning,
and
text
.
These
features
each
correspond
roughly
to
the
major
areas
of
linguistic
investigation
and
each
is
presented
in
one
or
the
other
of
the
branches
of
linguistics
.
1
.
4
.
2
Some
Important
Distinctions
in
Linguistics
1
.
4
.
2
.
1
Langue
and
Parole
(
语言与言语
）
Langue
:
the
linguistic
system
itself
;
the
abstract
system
;
something
which
differs
human
beings
from
animals
.
（
是言语社会集体使用的语言系统
。
）
Parole
:
the
particular
actualities
of
individual
utterances
;
the
use
of
the
language
in
utterances
.
(
指说话的个人在实际情景中说出的具体语
段
。
）
语言本身是中性的
，
不带感情色彩的
，
而语言的使用即言
语是有感情色彩的
。
因此
，
我们不能说
:
You
language
is
dirty
.
但可以说：
Your
parole
is
dirty
.
又如
，
我们不能说：
I
hate
English
.
It’s
a
racialist
language
.
因为不是英语这门语言有种族歧视
，
而是这语
言在被使用时
（
parole)
带上了种族歧视的色彩
。
Language
is
systematic,
but
parole
is
not
.
正如让
50
个人
用同一门语言
（
langue)
去描述同一个人
，
就会有完全不
同的言语
(parole)
出现
。
e
.
g
.
Tom,
donkey!
这句话就可以根据当时的情景理
解成几种完全不同的含义：
Tom,
驴子进来了
！
Tom,
驴子给你牵来了
！
Tom,
你这蠢驴
！
1
.
4
.
2
.
2
Prescriptive
and
Descriptive
(
规定式的和描写式的
）
Prescriptive
:
Prescribes
rules
of
what
is
correct
;
The
duty
of
grammarians,
schoolmasters,
and
dictionary
makers
is
to
maintain
some
absolute
standards
of
correctness
;
Any
deviations
from
the
rules
are
said
to
be
incorrect
or
nonstandard
;
So,
the
prescriptive
approach
relies
heavily
on
rules
of
grammar
.
Descriptive
:
Claims
that
the
linguist’s
first
task
is
to
describe
the
way
people
actually
speak
and
write
their
language,
not
to
prescribe
how
they
ought
to
speak
or
write
;
Describes
data
observed
.
They
are
interested
in
what
is
said,
not
what
they
think
ought
to
be
said
.
They
are
observers
and
recorders,
not
judges
.
The
job
of
the
linguist
is
to
observe
what
language
is
and
to
explain
why
it
is
so
.
It
is
not
his
function
to
improve
the
language
;
From
the
linguist’s
point
of
view,
“a
language
is
what
the
speakers
do
and
not
what
someone
thinks
they
ought
to
do”
.
In
distinguishing
description
and
prescription,
the
linguist
is
not
saying
that
there
is
no
place
for
prescriptive
studies
of
language
.
The
linguist
is
merely
asserting
that
language
is
used
for
many
purposes
.
1
.
4
.
2
.
3
Synchronic
and
Diachronic
（
共时与历时
）
In
linguistic
study,
we
can
either
look
at
a
grammar
at
one
particular
point
of
time
or
study
its
development
over
a
number
of
years
.
Synchronic
linguistics
:
The
synchronic
study
of
language
referring
to
the
description
of
a
language
at
a
single
point
of
time
.
The
analysis
of
language
at
a
single
point
in
time
and
the
knowledge
of
how
a
system
works
at
any
one
time
.
The
priority
of
synchronic
description
is
a
characteristic
of
most
the
20
th
century
linguistic
theories
.
We
rarely
know
very
much
about
the
historical
development
of
our
language
.
Yet,
when
children
are
learning
the
language,
they
come
to
speak
it
according
to
certain
systematic
rules
.
It
is
necessary
for
the
synchronic
description
to
find
out
these
systematic
rules
as
they
operate
in
a
language
at
a
particular
time
.
Diachronic linguistics:
The
diachronic
study
of
language
refers
to
the
description
of
the
historical
development
of
a
language
.
A
diachronic
study
of
the
Chinese
language
might
look
at
its
development
from
the
time
of
our
earliest
records
to
the
present
day
.
Linguistic
study
in
the
19
th
century
was
primarily
concerned
with
diachronic
description
.
The
dominant
approach
to
any
scientific
study
of
language
was
historical
.
1.4.2.4 Speech and Writing
Modern
linguists
regard
the
spoken
language
as
primary,
not
the
written
.
In
the
past,
because
it
was
difficult
to
cope
with
fleeting
utterances
before
the
sound
recording,
grammarians
and
the
traditional
classical
education
overstressed
the
importance
of
the
written
word
.
The
belief
in
the
superiority
of
the
written
word
has
continued
for
over
two
millennia
.
It
was
assumed
that
spoken
language
was
inferior
to
and
in
some
sense
dependent
upon
the
standard
written
language
.
Modern
linguistics
look
first
at
the
spoken
word
and
regard
spoken
and
written
forms
as
belongings
to
different,
though
overlapping
systems,
which
must
be
analyzed
separately
:
the
spoken
first,
then
the
written
.
Written
language
has
a
life
of
its
own
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