Chapter 10
Thinking and Language
The mental activity
associated with
processing, understanding,
and communicating
information (cognition).
thinking
A mental grouping of
similar objects,
events, or people.
concept
The best example of
a particular category.
prototype
A methodical, logical
procedure that, while
sometimes slow, guarantees
success.
algorithm
Any problem
-
solving
strategy based on rules
of thumb.
(More efficient
than algorithms, but do not
guarantee success and sometimes
even impede problem solving.)
heuristic
A sudden and often novel
realization of the solution to
a problem. (Contrasts with
trial and error and may
often follow an unsuccessful
episode of trial and error.)
insight
An obstacle to problem
solving in which people
tend to search for
information that validates
their preconceptions.
confirmation bias
An inability to
approach a problem
in a new way.
fixation
The tendency to continue
applying a particular
problem
-
solving strategy
even when it is no longer
helpful.
mental set
A type of fixation in
which a person can think
of things only in terms of
their usual functions.
functional fixedness
The tendency to judge
the likelihood of things
in terms of how well
they conform to one’s
prototypes.
Representativeness
heuristic
Based on estimating
the probability of
certain events in terms
of how readily they
come to mind.
availability heuristic
The tendency to
overestimate the accuracy
of one’s beliefs and
judgments (another
obstacle to problem solving).
overconfidence
The way an issue or
question is posed. It
can affect people’s
perception of the issue
or answer to the
question.
framing
The tendency for a
person’s preexisting
beliefs to distort his
or her logical
reasoning.
belief bias
The tendency for people
to cling to a particular
belief even after the
information that led to
the formation of the
belief is discredited.
belief perseverance
The science of designing
and programming
computers to do
“intelligent” things and to
simulate human though
processes.
Artificial intelligence
(AI)
Computer circuits that
simulate the brain’s
interconnected nerve
cells and perform tasks
such as learning to
recognize visual patterns.
computer neural
networks
Spoken, written, or
gestured words and
how we combine them
to communicate
meaning.
language
The smallest units of
sound in a language
that are distinctive for
speakers of the
language.
phonemes
The smallest units of
language that convey
meaning.
morphemes
A system of rules that
enables us to communicate
with and understand
others.
grammar
The aspect of grammar
that specifies the rules
used to derive meaning
from morphemes, words,
and sentences.
semantics
The aspect of grammar
specifying the rules for
combining words into
grammatical sentences.
syntax
Stage of speech development
which begins at 3
-
4 months,
characterized by the
spontaneous utterance of
speech sounds.
(During this
stage, babies the world over sound
the same.)
babbling stage
Between 1
-
2 years of age,
children speak mostly in
single words; therefore,
they are in this stage of
linguistic development.
one
-
word stage
Beginning about age 2,
children are in this
stage where they
speak in two
-
word
sentences.
two
-
word stage
The economical, telegram
-
like
speech of children in the two
-
word stage. Utterances consist
mostly of nouns and verbs;
however, words occur in the
correct order, showing that the
child has learned some of the
language’s syntactic rules.
telegraphic speech
Benjamin Whorf’s
hypothesis that
language determines
the way we think.
linguistic relativity
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