TOPICS IN (NANO)
BIOTECHNOLOGY
Lecture I
25th February, 2004
PhD Course
1. What is Biotechnology?
•
Definitions of Biotechnology
•
Timeline of Biotechnology
•
Techniques used in Biotechnology
•
Who's Who in Biotechnology
2. How is Biotechnology being used?
•
Applications of Biotechnology
•
Medicines on the market today
•
Agriculture
-
GM Foods and Animals
•
DNA fingerprinting and forensic science
•
Gene Therapy and Transgenic Animals
•
Human Embryonic Stem Cells and Cloning
3. What are some of the societal issues Biotechnology
raises?
•
Bioethics / "Genethics"
•
Public attitudes to biotechnology
-
safety, awareness
•
Therapeutic uses of human genes and tissues
Overview
What is biotechnology?
•
Biotechnology = bios (life) + logos (study of or
essence)
–
Literally ‘the study of tools from living things’
•
CLASSIC
:
The
word
"biotechnology"
was
first
used
in
1917
to
describe
processes
using
living
organisms
to
make
a
product
or
run
a
process,
such
as
industrial
fermentations
.
(
Robert
Bud,
The
Uses
of
Life
:
A
History
of
Biotechnology
)
•
LAYMAN: Biotechnology began when humans began
to plant their own crops, domesticate animals,
ferment juice into wine, make cheese, and leaven
bread (
AccesExcellence)
What is biotechnology?
•
GENENTECH
:
Biotechnology
is
the
process
of
harnessing
'nature's
own'
biochemical
tools
to
make
possible
new
products
and
processes
and
provide
solutions
to
society's
ills
(G
.
Kirk
Raab,
Former
President
and
CEO
of
Genentech)
•
WEBSTER’S
:
The
aspect
of
technology
concerned
with
the
application
of
living
organisms
to
meet
the
needs
and
ends
of
man
.
•
WALL
STREET
:
Biotechnology
is
the
application
of
genetic
engineering
and
DNA
technology
to
produce
therapeutic
and
medical
diagnostic
products
and
processes
.
Biotech
companies
have
one
thing
in
common
-
the
use
of
genetic
engineering
and
manipulation
of
organisms
at
a
molecular
level
.
What is biotechnology?
•
Using
scientific
methods
with
organisms
to
produce
new
products
or
new
forms
of
organisms
•
Any
technique
that
uses
living
organisms
or
substances
from
those
organisms
or
substances
from
those
organisms
to
make
or
modify
a
product,
to
improve
plants
or
animals,
or
to
develop
microorganisms
for
specific
uses
What is biotechnology?
•
Biotechnology is a multidisciplinarian in nature,
involving input from
•
Engineering
•
Computer Science
•
Cell and Molecular Biology
•
Microbiology
•
Genetics
•
Physiology
•
Biochemistry
•
Immunology
•
Virology
•
Recombinant DNA Technology
䝥湥G楣i浡湩灵污瑩潮p
潦o扡捴敲楡e v楲畳敳Ⱐ晵湧椬 灬慮瑳p慮搠慮業慬猬 潦o敮e景爠
the development of specific products
What are the stages of biotechnology?
•
Ancient Biotechnology
•
early history as related to food and shelter,
including domestication
•
Classical Biotechnology
•
built on ancient biotechnology
•
fermentation promoted food production
•
medicine
•
Modern Biotechnology
•
manipulates genetic information in organism
•
genetic engineering
Ancient biotechnology
•
Paleolithic society
–
Hunter
-
gatherers
Nomadic
lifestyle due to migratory animals and edible plant
distribution (wild wheat and barley) (~2 x 10
6
yrs.)
•
Followed by domestication of plants and animals
(artificial selection)
People settled, sedentary
lifestyles evolved (~10,000 yrs. ago)
•
Cultivation of wheat, barley and rye (seed
collections)
•
Sheep and goats
milk, cheese, button and
meat
•
Grinding stones for food preparation
•
New technology
Origins of Biotechnology
Agrarian Societies
•
History
of
domestication
and
agriculture
History
of
domestication
and
agriculture
History
of
domestication
and
agriculture
History of domestication and agriculture
•
Long history of fermented foods since people
began to settle (9000 BC) (fervere
–
to boil)
•
Often discovered by accident!
•
Improved flavor and texture
•
Deliberate contamination with bacteria or
fungi (molds)
•
Examples:
•
Bread
•
Yogurt
•
Sour cream
•
Cheese
•
Wine
•
Beer
•
Sauerkraut
Ancient biotechnology
Fermented foods and beverages
•
Dough not baked immediately would undergo
spontaneous fermentation
would rise
Eureka!!
•
Uncooked fermented dough could be used to
ferment a new batch
no longer reliant on
“chance fermentation”
•
1866
–
Louis Pasteur published his findings on
the direct link between yeast and sugars
CO
2
+
ethanol (anaerobic process)
•
1915
–
Production of baker’s yeast
–
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Ancient biotechnology
Fermented foods and beverages
•
Different types of beer
•
Vinegar
•
Glycerol
•
Acetone
•
Butanol
•
Lactic acid
•
Citric acid
•
Antibiotics
–
WWII (Bioreactor developed for large
scale production, e.g. penicilin made by fermentation
of penicillium)
•
Today many different antibiotics are produced by
microorganisms
•
Cephalosporins, bacitracin, neomycin,
tetracycline……..)
Classical biotechnology
Industry today exploits early discoveries of the fermentation
process for production of huge numbers of products
•
Substrate
+ Microbial Enzyme
Product
•
Examples:
•
Cholesterol
Steroids (cortisone, estrogen,
progesterone) (hydroxylation reaction
-
OH
group added to cholesterol ring)
Classical biotechnology
Chemical transformations to produce therapeutic
products
•
Amino acids to improve food taste, quality or
preservation
•
Enzymes (cellulase, collagenase, diastase,
glucose isomerase, invertase, lipase, pectinase,
protease)
•
Vitamins
•
Pigments
Classical biotechnology
Microbial synthesis of other commercially valuable
products
•
Cell biology
•
Structure, organization and reproduction
•
Biochemistry
•
Synthesis of organic compounds
•
Cell extracts for fermentation (enzymes
versus whole cells)
•
Genetics
•
Resurrection of Gregor Mendel’s findings
1866
1900s
•
Theory of Inheritance (ratios dependent on traits of
parents)
•
Theory of Transmission factors
•
W.H. Sutton
–
1902
•
Chromosomes = inheritance factors
•
T.H. Morgan
–
Drosophila melanogaster
Modern biotechnology
Molecular Biology
•
Beadle and Tatum (Neurospora crassa)
•
One gene, one enzyme hypothesis
•
Charles Yanofsky
colinearity
between mutations in genes and amino
acid sequence (
E. coli
)
•
Genes determine structure of proteins
•
Hershey and Chase
–
1952
•
T2 bacteriophage
–
32
P DNA, not
35
S protein
is the material that encodes genetic
information
Modern biotechnology
•
Watson, Crick, Franklin and Wilkins (1953)
•
X
-
ray crystallography
•
1962
–
Nobel Prize awarded to three men
•
Chargaff
–
DNA base ratios
•
Structural model of DNA developed
•
DNA Revolution
–
Promise and Controversy!!!
•
Scientific foundation of modern biotechnology
•
based on knowledge of DNA, its replication,
repair and use of enzymes to carry out in vitro
splicing DNA fragments
Modern biotechnology
•
Breaking the Genetic Code
–
Finding the Central
Dogma
•
An “RNA Club” organized by George Gamow (1954)
assembled to determine the role of RNA in protein
synthesis
•
Vernon Ingram’s research on sickle cell anemia (1956)
tied together inheritable diseases with protein structure
•
Link made between amino acids and DNA
•
Radioactive tagging experiments demonstrate
intermediate between DNA and protein = RNA
•
RNA movement tracked from nucleus to cytoplasm
site of
protein synthesis
Modern biotechnology
•
DNA
RNA
Protein
Transcription
Translation
Genetic code determined for all 20 amino acids by
Marshal Nirenberg and Heinrich Matthaei and Gobind
Khorana
–
Nobel Prize
–
1968
•
3 base sequence = codon
Modern biotechnology
What are the areas of biotechnology?
•
Organismic biotechnology
•
uses intact organisms and does not alter genetic
material
•
Molecular Biotechnology
•
alters genetic makeup to achieve specific goals
Transgenic organism: an organism with artificially
altered genetic material
What are the benefits of
biotechnology?
•
Medicine
•
human
•
veterinary
•
biopharming
•
Environment
•
Agriculture
•
Food products
•
Industry and manufacturing
What are the applications of biotechnology?
•
Production of new and improved crops/foods,
industrial chemicals, pharmaceuticals and livestock
•
Diagnostics for detecting genetic diseases
•
Gene therapy (e.g. ADA, CF)
•
Vaccine development (recombinant vaccines)
•
Environmental restoration
•
Protection of endangered species
•
Conservation biology
•
Bioremediation
•
Forensic applications
•
Food processing (cheese, beer)
Monoclonal
Antibodies
Molecular
Biology
Cell
Culture
Genetic
Engineering
Anti
-
cancer drugs
Diagnostics
Culture of plants
from single cells
Transfer of new
genes into animal
organisms
Synthesis of
specific DNA
probes
Localisation of
genetic disorders
Tracers
Cloning
Gene therapy
Mass prodn. of
human proteins
Resource bank
for rare human
chemicals
Synthesis
of new
proteins
New
antibiotics
New types of
plants and
animals
New types
of food
DNA
technology
Crime solving
Banks of
DNA, RNA
and proteins
Complete
map of the
human
genome
Biotechnology Timeline
1750 BC
The Sumerians brew beer.
500 BC
Chinese use moldy soybean
curds as an antibiotic to treat
boils
1590
Janssen invents the microscope
1675
Leeuwenhoek discovers cells
(bacteria, red blood cells)
1830
Proteins are discovered
1833
The first enzymes are isolated
1855
The
Eschirium coli
bacterium
is discovered
Biotechnology Timeline
1859
Charles Darwin publishes
On
the Origin of Species
1864
Louis Pasteur shows all living
things are produced by other
living things
1865
The age of genetics begins
1902
Walter Sutton coins the term
‘gene’
-
proposed that
chromosomes carry genes
Biotechnology Timeline
1910
Chromosomal theory of
inheritance proved
1928
Fleming discovers antibiotic
properties of certain molds
1941
George Beadle and Edward Tatum propose
that one gene makes one protein
1949
Sickle cell anaemia demonstrated to be
molecular disease
Biotechnology Timeline
1952
The ‘Waring Blender’
experiment
1953
The double helix is unravelled
1967
The genetic code is cracked
1973
Recombinant DNA
technology begins
1975
First international conference
on recombinant DNA
technology
Biotechnology Timeline
1975
Monoclonal antibody
technology introduced
1975
DNA sequencing discovered
1978
Genentech Inc. established
1978
Genentech use genetic engineering to produce
human insulin in
E.coli
-
1980 IPO of $89
1978
Kary Mullis discovers PCR
Biotechnology Timeline
1989
The Human Genome Project begins
1990
First use of gene therapy
1990
First product of recombinant
DNA technology introduced
into US food chain
1993
FDA announces that
transgenic food is safe
1994
The FLAVRSAVR tomato
-
first genetically engineered
whole food
Biotechnology Timeline
1996
First mammal cloned from adult
cells
1990s
First conviction using genetic
fingerprinting
1996
Development of Affymetrix
GeneChip
1997
First artificial chromosome
History of Biotechnology
1998
Human embryonic stem cells
grown
1999
Celera announces completion
of Drosophilia genome
sequence
2000
90% of Human Genome
sequence published on web
2001
Human genome project
complete
Ex
c
ercise
•
Choose
3
scientists
who
have
contributed
to
the
biotechnology
revolution
and
write
a
paragraph
describing
their
input
•
Discover
more
about
the
Asilomar
conference
and
decribe
its
signficance
on
the
use
of
recombinant
DNA
technology
•
Discover
more
about
what
led
to
the
death
of
the
FLAVRSAVR
tomato
.
•
Follow
one
‘linked
set
of
discoveries’
outlining
the
path
from
the
first
experiment
to
today
.
Ex
c
ercise
•
Compare
and
argue
both
sides
of
Monsanto
vs
Greenpeace
on
the
theme
of
genetically
modified
food
•
Outline
the
IMCLONE
story
and
explain
the
potential
impact
on
biotechnology
industry
.
•
Argue
both
for
and
against
the
use
of
human
embryonic
stem
cells
and
outline
international
stance
on
this
research
.
•
Outline
the
story
of
the
race
to
unravel
DNA
.
Discussion
•
What
is
the
societal
impression
of
biotechnology?
•
What
are
the
negative
impacts
that
biotechnology
may
have?
•
What
are
the
potential
ethical
issues
associated
with
biotechnology?
•
Why
are
biotechnology
companies
targeted
by
anti
-
globalisation
protesters?
•
How
can
the
image
of
biotechnology
to
the
public
be
improved?
Should
it
be
improved?
•
What
are
the
potential
dangers
of
biotechnology?
Useful Resources
•
http://www.geocities.com/cwfennhcc/bi200/intro.html
•
http://www.geocities.com/cwfennhcc/bi200/quiz1.htm
•
http://www.accessexcellence.org/
•
The Uses Of Life
–
A History of Biotechnology (Robert
Bud)
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